Definitions

A semiconductor is an object/material that is able to conduct electricity better than nonconductors/insulators (glass), but not as well as conductors (copper). 

There are different types of transistors, but the one most commonly used in electronics is a "metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOSFET.  This type of transistor has two n-type areas (source and drain) and one p-type area (channel) between the two n-types.  The channel is covered with a thin layer of silicon dioxide (does not conduct electricity), and then another layer called "the gate".  When a voltage is supplied to the gate, it turns the MOSFET off and on, which transmits digital readings through microprocessor.

An integrated circuit is a very small circuit that does a certain job, so it is usually combined with other materials so that a more complex team of electronics is formed. 

Solar cells provide electric power in [artificial] satellites. 

Ionic bonds are stronger because of the presence of intramolecular forces, which are not as easily broken as intermolecular forces.  Ionic compounds have a lattice structure, or the same ratio of the metal atom to the nonmetal atom throughout the entire substance.  For this reason, metal-nonmetal compounds usually exist in a solid (stable/low energy state).    These compounds tend to have higher melting and boiling points due to this structure.  

Covalent bonds differ from ionic bonds, because intramolecular forces are present between atoms in the molecules, but not between one molecule and the its neighbor.  Intermolecular forces hold one molecule to another molecule, so there is not a lattice structure.  Nonmetal-nonmetal compounds can and do exist in solid, liquid, or gas states.  Due to the presence of intermolecular forces (and their resulting structure), these compounds tend to have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. 

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different mass; the charge is the same, but the number of neutrons is different.

"Dopants" or "doping" occurs when impurities are added to a semiconductor (such as silicon).  The difference of valence electrons between the dopant and the material being doped allows for a negative (n-type) or positive (p-type) electricity carrier.